An Overview of the Discipline

Earth science reconstructs the history of the earth through an exploration of natural interactions in the environment. This is the only discipline that provides a 4D representation of data. For example, geologists’ topological maps show not only the length, width, and height of an area, but also changes to that area over time. Writing by earth scientists may also include systematic descriptions of earth systems, geological maps, or an explanation of the history revealed by earth’s physical conditions.

Penn has three different tracks within the earth science major: environmental science, geology, and paleobiology. While each focuses on different elements of the natural earth systems, the three tracks use similar approaches to writing.

Writing in the Discipline

Goal

Problem Definition and Solution

Papers that aim to define problems and provide solutions are most common. These papers tend to generate new data and formulate conclusions based on that data. For example, a geologist may ask, “what is the geological significance of this area?” and then pursue an answer through field research or an examination of studies done by other scientists.

Positional Affirmation and Critique

Other papers review scholarly work by summarizing existing literature or criticizing past research. Although these papers do not generate new data, they validate past data. Through this process, geological analyses change as additional data is collected or past data is re-evaluated.

Reasoning

Because variables cannot be controlled when collecting field data, nothing can ever be fully proven in the earth sciences. Instead, papers should try to disprove through explanation.

In an earth science paper, data should be presented as objectively as possible. The data itself should hold the most weight in the paper’s reasoning. The author’s interpretation and alternative interpretations of the data should be logically and clearly described. Bias should be noted and explained.

However, bias is unavoidable. Be aware that when interpreting data, authors will often incorporate their own political, religious, or environmental objectives.

Evidence

In contrast to research done in lab sciences, earth scienists primarily reserach in the field and cannot control for all variables. Instead, the researcher must focus only on the activity of interest. Because this is difficult to do, data is more important than analysis in earth science writing. When using previously published sources, it is important to distinguish between data and interpretation.

Work published by others in the field may also be used as evidence. For example, work by other scientists may provide a baseline or different data to compare. Most earth scientists agree that to be legitimate, data should be replicable. For this reason, clarity is extremely important in a paper. Authors must provide a clear description of data so that others can try to replicate their work.

Earth science is similar to law in that the weight of the evidence is what carries the argument. Attempts at straightforward persuasion should be limited as well-collected data itself should be strong enough to convince readers of the analysis being done.

Authorship

Individual vs. Collaborative

Earth science is a collaborative field, and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) exemplifies this collaboration. By employing many different scientists working in different areas, the USGS can create books about or maps for an area. Additionally, while one scientist can collect and analyze data, this data may be used to reach different conclusions over time as additional data is collected. Scientists will also research previously collected data in order to validate it.

Whether papers are written individually or co-authored depends on a scientist's personality and the history of the department he or she works in. While Dr. Steven Phipps explained that he plans to publish a series of single-authored papers, many scientists work with a team to produce papers that have multiple co-authors.

Writing Tips

The Writing Process

I. Prewriting: Data Collection

II. Writing: Data Presentation and Interpretation

III. Revision: Analysis of Effectiveness

General Tips

Dr. Robert Giegengack explains that earth science writing "should be simple. If you truly understand what you're writing about, you should be able to explain it to a twelve year old."

Below are some tips from both Dr. Giegengack and Dr. Phipps:

• Writing should be simple, direct, and avoid jargon.
• Writing should be concise, but beautiful.
• Because writing concerns data, no "fluff" should be used. One common problem is overusing adverbs.
• When writing the paper itself, data should be presented objectively and interpretations should be explained.
• Dr. Giegengack suggests testing each sentence as you write. He explains, “if you write a sentence and it doesn’t make sense, you should rework the sentence to be more clear until it does make sense.”
• Dr. Phipps recommends using a notepad to store ideas and refer back to them throughout the writing process.

Important Criteria for Student Writing

Reviewers should check for proper structure, substantial evidence, and minimal bias within the paper. If deemed necessary, more data may be required to strengthen the paper’s argument or explanation.

Common Mistakes

According to Dr. Giegengack, students typically overcomplicate their writing and use too much jargon or "fluff." Students should make sure that each sentence has a purpose and conveys important information.

Student Writing Assignments

While Dr. Giegengack's 100-level students do not often have writing assignments. Students in his 500-level courses are expected to write term papers that mimic professional writing in the field.

Additional Resources

Helpful Books and Articles

Suggestions to Authors of the Reports of the United States Geological Survey

This conservative guide teaches the appropriate language and style for writing U.S. Geological Survey technical reports and maps.

The Elements of Style

This classic writing style guide contains rules of usage as well as helpful tips such as a list of commonly misused words and expressions.

© 2013 The University of Pennsylvania

Meet the Professors

Dr. Stephen Paul Phipps

Dr. Phipps teaches both 100 and upper level classes in the geology department. Through his research, he has analyzed geologic structures, specifically on the west coast of the United States.

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Dr. Robert Giegengack

No longer actively teaching in the department, Dr. Giegengack currently helps students with their senior theses. His past research includes studies of the geology of the Middle East as well as measuring and analyzing variations in natural cycles. Dr. Giegengack's favorite writers include Grove Karl Gilbert as well as "Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth" author John Playfair for their crisp, clear, and precise writing style.